L.J.H. Raymundo1, A.P. Maypa2 and M.M. Luchavez2

1 Cornell University, Ithaca N.Y., U.S.A.

2 Silliman University, Dumaguete City, THE PHILIPPINES

Philippine coral reefs have degraded at an accelerating rate over the past 20 years. Interest in the potential use of coral transplantation to rehabilitate disturbed reefs has resulted in research into appropriate methodologies and suitable species for such work. We selected Pocillopora damicornis for transplantation because it is an opportunistic species that is ubiquitous and easily maintained under laboratory conditions. Planulae collected in laboratory aquaria from wild adult colonies during four spawning periods (February, April, June, July 1997) showed a mean settlement success rate of 61.65 11.3% (n = 2,354 planulae), and a first week mortality rate of 28.12 15.74%. In comparison, planulae (n = 300) seeded directly onto the reef during June 1997 showed 14.3% settlement success and 81% first-week mortality, while none remained after 3 weeks. Monthly growth rates of laboratory-reared juveniles averaged 1.54 0.151mm (mean SE, n = 30) during the first six months after settlement, indicating the feasibility of extended laboratory rearing for this species. We recently transplanted 320 laboratory-reared juvenile colonies from four age/size cohorts (<3mm, 3-6mm, 6.1-10mm, >10mm; n = 80 for each size class) to the field to examine the relationships between colony size, growth rate, and mortality. Preliminary results indicated decreased mortality with increased size at transplantation (6-week mortality: 82.5%, 60%, 27.5% and 2.5% for smallest to largest size categories, respectively). Growth rates of all but the smallest size category were comparable to those observed in laboratory aquaria. This suggests that rearing juvenile colonies to a minimum of 10mm prior to transplantation to the field will enhance high post-transplantation survival. Our studies so far indicate that reintroducing corals to a degraded site may be possible by settling planulae in laboratory aquaria, rearing them to a minimum size, and transplanting them onto appropriate reef substrate. The protocol we are developing shows future promise as a technology transferable to fishing communities and local laboratories for the rehabilitation of degraded sanctuary areas.

Sandra R. Arcamo

Coastal Resource Management Section, Bureau of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources (BFAR), 860 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, PHILIPPINES

This paper describes the formation of a bay management council as a means of integrating uses and regulations for the best sustainable use of a bay's resources. It considers the bay as a large ecological sphere of multilateral juridical boundaries supporting varied habitats, resources, and human activities, and the implications of these considerations for a harmonious and rational resource management. It provides observation on the creation, role and organisational structure, as well as the impact of the council, and concludes that collective action for bay management is feasible, provided there is sustained support and participation from different stakeholders.

Ulf Lindahl

Kristineberg Marine Research Station, S-450 34 Fiskebäckskil, SWEDEN

Two years of studies on coral transplantation on Mafia Island, Tanzania are summarised. The experiments have focused on the development of simple and cost-effective methods for rehabilitation of degraded coral reefs. The survival and growth of transplanted staghorn corals (Acropora formosa) were compared with respect to method of attachment and degree of wave-exposure. In addition, survival and growth was compared between three different species of staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) after transplantation to semi-exposed rubble areas and protected sandy areas. In order to evaluate the damage caused by collection of corals for transplantation, the degree of cover of the source-populations was monitored for two years. The effects of the emersion of staghorn corals were studied in order to assess the possibility of long-range transport of corals prior to transplantation. The results show that unattached fragments of staghorn corals can be used to create stable populations with rapid growth rate, even in areas with relatively high wave-energy. These populations also seem to form a suitable habitat for wave-driven fragments of other coral species. The recovery of source-populations seem to be hampered in patches where algae and soft corals are common. The corals survived several hours of emersion, depending on storage conditions and source-habitat (intertidal or subtidal). These results suggest that coral transplantation could, under certain circumstances, be a realistic option for large-scale rehabilitation of degraded coral reefs in developing countries.

Paul L.A. Erftemeijer1 and Nukul Ratanadukul2

1 Wetlands International - Thailand Programme, P.O. Box 21, Si Phuwanat, Hat Yai 90113, THAILAND

2 Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani 94000, THAILAND

Intensive logging and conversion for shrimp aquaculture have caused a rapid loss of large areas of productive mangrove forests and other coastal wetlands in Thailand over the past three decades. Although detailed information on the techniques for mangrove reforestation is available, and the government as well as private sector appear to be willing to invest huge amounts of money into mangrove rehabilitation, the success of these efforts are often limited, in terms of time and area. Besides technical and financial constraints, the success of coastal restoration efforts may be hampered by issues relating to land ownership, land-use conflicts, and the lack of follow-up and attention after initial planting. An increasing number of projects and initiatives have emerged throughout Thailand that are involving local communities in the planning and implementation of mangrove reforestation efforts. Recognition of the use-rights of these communities in sharing the benefits of the rehabilitation (e.g. extraction of non-timber products) through the granting of community forest status, can provide an important incentive for their active involvement in replanting and follow-up, to ensure high rates of survival and success.

This paper examines three case studies of community participation in mangrove rehabilitation in Trang, Songkhla and Pattani provinces, Southern Thailand. The three examples differ in approach and in stage of progress (timescale), ranging from a low-key long-term grassroots initiatives with NGO support emphasising community capacity building for self-reliance, to ICZM style projects with major technical, academic and financial inputs from outside. All three examples clearly demonstrate the benefits of community participation in mangrove rehabilitation. The building of confidence and understanding within the community may be time-consuming and hamper immediately measurable progress in replanting. This investment however, will pay off in the long term because it builds a strong sense of ownership and commitment within the community and therefore ensures the long-term sustainability of the rehabilitation. By combining the rehabilitation with environmental awareness building and socio-economic development activities, this approach will not only ensure successful reforestation of mangroves but also contribute to the prevention of further degradation.

Sonjai Havanond1, Sanit Aksornkoae2 and Takehisa Nakamura3

1 Mangrove and Swamp Forest Research and Development Sub-Division, Forest Research Office, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok 10900, THAILAND

2 Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, THAILAND

3 Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, JAPAN

The investigation was carried out in the mangrove forest near La-un River, Ranong Province, along the west coast of Southern Thailand. Two 50 x 50 m quadrats were set in an undisturbed natural mangrove forest dominated by Heritiera formes Buch, et Ham, and a disturbed mangrove area which has been used for fuel wood harvesting since the Second World War. Mound heights and basal areas of mud lobsters were measured and mapped. Plant species, soil samples and grapsid crab inhabitation were also identified. The results indicated that there were 74 mud lobster mounds (0.32 - 1.7m in height) with a total basal area of 304.04m2 (12.17% of quadrat area) in the undisturbed site, while in the disturbed site, 98 mounds (0.34-1.8m in height) occupying a total basal area of 600.07 m2 (24.03% of quadrat area) were recorded. The basal area of individual mounds found in the undisturbed site was significantly larger than in that in the disturbed site. Also, mound heights in the undisturbed site were significantly higher than that in the disturbed site. Several species of grapsid crabs, e.g. Sesarma kraussi de Man. 1988, S. singaporensis Tweedie, Samatium smithii H. Milne-Edwards and Samatium punctatum A. Milne-Edwards were observed to also occupy the mud lobster mounds. The mounds were observed to affect the number of young Rhizophora mucronata seedlings in the disturbed site, reducing the areal coverage of these seedlings to 9.72% of the quadrat area. On the other hand, the natural regeneration of young mangrove seedlings were found to be poor in both sites. A total of 32 seedlings and 17 saplings of mangroves were observed in the undisturbed quadrat, while 32 seedlings, 4 saplings were observed in the disturbed quadrat. The results also revealed that Heritiera formes Buch. et Ham seedlings and saplings were the dominant natural regeneration species in both sites. Mangrove species observed in order of priority were: Xylocarpus granatum Koenig, X. moluccensis (Lam) Roem, Cynometra iripa Kostel, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L) Lam, Heritiera littoralis Aiton, Diospyros areolata King & Gamble, Bruguiera sexangula (Lour) Poir, Ceriops decandra Ding Hou, Dolicandrone spatacea Schum, Avicennia officinalis L., Intsia bijuga Ktze and Rhizophora apiculata Bl., respectively. Ground flora and climbing plants such as Acrostichum speciosum Willd and Dalbergia cadenatensis Prain were found mainly in the undisturbed site, while the ground flora, e.g. Acrostichum speciosum and A. ilicifolius L., and climbing plants, such as Derris trifoliata Lour., Finlaysonia maritina Back and Dalbergia cadenatensis were found in the disturbed site. The mud lobsters were observed to gradually affect changes in the structure of mangrove forests and the ecosystem.

Suraphol Chunhabundit1, Nipat Teva-aruk2, Thamasak Yeemin3 and Thanitha Thapanand4

1 Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, BKK 10330, THAILAND

2 Special Warfare Unit, The Royal Thai Fleets, Chonburi, THAILAND

3 Biology Dept., Faculty of Sciences, Ramkhamhaeng University, BKK 10240, THAILAND

4 Fishery Biology Dept., Fisheries Faculty, Kasetsart University, BKK 10900, THAILAND

Kham Island (Lat. 13o 14' N; Long. 100o 52' E) is one of 12 islands in Sattahip Bay, Upper Gulf of Thailand. This island is rich in variety of corals and other fauna. However, the fragile coral reef ecosystem of the island has been heavily impacted as a result of the activities of the Navy, as compared with other parts of the Upper Gulf. Transplantation of corals was carried out on this island as one of the scientific steps taken to restore the damaged coral ecosystem. Transplantation of the hard corals: Platygyra spp., Monastrea spp., Porites lutea, Favia spp., Symphyllia radians, Galaxea fasicularis, Montipora spp., Favites abdita, Pavona florida, Diploastrea sp., Acropora spp., and soft corals Sinularia sp.and Xenia sp. was studied during the period from March 1995 to October 1997. A technique was developed for the rapid fixation of coral branches and heads on concrete plates using a special cement, applied in air and underwater. A total of 260 massive coral colonies, 40 coral branches and 3 soft coral colonies representing 13 genera were removed by hand from reef sites degraded by high sedimentation. The coral colonies were transported by navy boats from the collection site to the transplantation site, a new reef area 60 minutes away. During transportation, the corals were submerged in a container containing seawater, and provided aeration and some seawater exchange. After 6 months, the overall survival of the coral colonies was 92%. Small colonies of the coral Porites lutea did not survive. The annual linear growth rates of the surviving colonies were recorded by measuring the maximum widths at the base of the colonies, and heights. Newly generated branches were counted in order to study growth in Acropora spp. In addition, an assessment of the condition of transplanted corals was made by studying the percentage cover of living polyps, as well as polyps lost in coral colonies.

Nalinee Thongtham and Hansa Chansang

Phuket Marine Biological Center, PO Box 60, Phuket 83000, Thailand

A study was conducted on recruitment of corals using different complexities in concrete cylinders welded together to form 50 x 50 x 50 cm3 triangular modules. The size and number of cylinders determined the complexity of the modules, which were laid out in horizontal positions in a coral community Northeast of Maiton Island, Phuket. After 25 months, the first monitoring found Porites to be the most dominant of the corals that had settled on these modules. The second monitoring, carried out six months later, found that Porites was still the most dominant coral, but the fire coral, Millepora, had the highest rate of survival. The number of colonies, the area covered, and the survival rate of corals were higher on high-complexity modules than on the less complex ones. The study concluded that at Maiton Island, artificial substrates provided a more suitable area for settlement and growth of coral larvae compared to natural substrates.

Vipoosit Manthachitra1 and G.P. Jones2

1 Department of Aquatic Science, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, THAILAND

2 Department of Marine Biology, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, Queensland 4810, AUSTRALIA

The effect of mechanical disturbance of the coral habitat on reef fish assemblages was experimentally investigated at two spatial scales, the regional and local. At the regional level, near-shore and highly impacted reefs at Phuket (Thailand) were compared with inshore, relative non-impacted reefs near the central Great Barrier Reef (Australia). Local variation was assessed by repeating experiments at two sites within each region. The structure of fish assemblages differed between the two regions in relation to biogeographic differences in the species pool. Phuket was dominated by both pomacentrids and labrids, while pomacentrids dominated at central GBR. Experimental manipulations involved a reduction in the cover of live hard coral (GBR and Phuket) and a reduction in live soft coral (GBR only), with appropriate controls. The response of fish to habitat disturbance varied regionally and locally, and depended on which fish taxa was examined and whether hard coral or soft coral was disturbed. In general, most fish taxa responded negatively to a reduction in living coral cover, with decreased diversity, species richness, and reduced abundance of coral-associated species. In contrast, removing soft coral appeared to have a positive effect on the abundance of many fish species, perhaps because it resulted in an increase in habitat complexity. The magnitude of the influence of habitat degradation appeared to differ between the two regions, with Phuket exhibiting greater extent of impacts with less tendency for recovery. In contrast, impacts on the central GBR were slight and recovery was rapid. The experimental manipulation, by reducing components of the habitat, illustrated that habitat structure and resource availability may have a strong impact on the structure of reef fish assemblages at widely separated locations.

Julie E. Albano, Cesar G. Dean, Jr. and Filipina B. Sotto

Marine Biology Section, Department of Biology, University of San Carlos, Cebu City 6000, Philippines

The current status of mangrove rehabilitation projects in Cebu Province implemented by DENR-ERDS 7, DA, CVRP-1 was assessed. Of the 49 municipalities and 5 component cities, 38 are undertaking mangrove rehabilitation of which 22 are implemented by DENR-ERDS 7, 3 by DA, 4 by CVRP-1 and 2 by NGOs. Fourteen sites were visited for validation and assessed in terms of the species used in rehabilitation, and species composition. Project valuation was also taken into consideration. Results showed that most of the rehabilitation established by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) were concentrated on the southern part of Cebu Province with a total reforested area of 430.25 ha, according to the records of CENRO, Cebu City. Only two species were used in rehabilitation, namely, Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata, and the survival rate was 80%. Plantings started in 1989 for all these sites. The total project costs amounted to PHP 4,100,645.80, with funding sources from the OECF and ADB.

The Central Visayas Regional Project (CVRP-1), was started on 1 July 1984, and the total rehabilitated area was 46.6 ha in Malhiao, Zaragosa Island, Badian and Palanas in Ronda. The CVRP-1 mangrove reforestation project was relatively more successful compared with the others, and the survival rate was 80%, even though the requirement for turn-over is only 40%. Eight species were used in the rehabilitation, and the project was funded by the World Bank.

The Department of Agriculture’s (DA) reforestation project was in Sitio Tacup and Kawanahan in San Remigio. The total area covered was 20 ha. Areas with 80% survival were turned over to recipients, while areas damaged by natural calamities were re-extended and abandoned areas were cancelled. In terms of funding, the propagules were provided free-of-charge by the DA. Problems encountered by the recipients were: non-cooperation from some stakeholders, low survival rates due to droughts and floods, and the availability of propagules. On the other hand, the problems encountered by the three government agencies were land ownership and non-approved FLAs, and the fact that the sites rehabilitated were under Proclamation 2151. All these hindered the turnover of the reforested sites to recipients.

Gercende Courtois de Vicose & L. M. Chou

Topical Marine Science Initiative, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, SINGAPORE 119260

Singapore waters are heavily loaded with sediments, caused mainly by three decades of land reclamation and constant dredging for harbour and navigational purposes. Although all domestic sewage from mainland Singapore is adequately treated, the waters also contain relatively high levels of nutrients, possibly due to heavy shipping activities, and other anthropogenic sources from the Johore and Malacca Straits. Ammonium and phosphate concentrations have been found to be 15 and 8 times higher, respectively, compared to levels at the Great Barrier Reef. The high sedimentation and nutrient levels have had a major effect on marine life in Singapore, especially coral reefs. Recent surveys made around the southern islands of Singapore recorded very few giant clams, compared to observations made two decades ago. Consequently, one of the aims of the Tropical Marine Science Initiative of the National University of Singapore, is a reseeding of the reefs in Singapore’s Marine Nature Areas with giant clams.

Procedures for giant clam mariculture in nutrient-limited waters routinely advise the addition of nutrients to enhance growth. This study will investigate the physiology, growth, zooxanthellae symbiosis and calcification process of giant clams cultured in “enriched” waters of Singapore, to serve as a basis for comparison with other studies conducted in nutrient depleted waters. The study will also contribute to understanding the effects of high sediment and nutrient levels on giant clam culture, and lead to improved culture techniques and better controls for water quality criteria. Clams cultured in waters that have undergone dramatic environmental changes could increase our understanding of the transformations and adaptations processes that have occurred in the coral reef ecosystems of Singapore over the last three decades. These results will contribute to our understanding of anthropogenic impacts of coral reef environments, and will also be useful to the Effect of Nutrient Enrichment on Coral Reefs (ENCORE) experiment coordinated by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA).